2012 Real or fake

As some may or may not know "Doomsday" is upon us. Well some people believe that theory to be true while other laugh. That's why I ask the question who believes in 2012 being the last year of existence. Let me just brief everyone who doesn't know. On December 21, 2012 the apparent "Doomsday" will occur. Don't just throw this off as a Conspiracy Theory just yet.

The Mayans have a calendar set hundreds of years ago, and there clock keeps going on today eventhough the Mayans were killed years ago. On December 21, 2012 is when their calendar stops (or resets). The Mayans were also respondible for closely depicting events like both World Wars. Still don't believe me. Einstein is quoted in saying (im paraphrasing), Everything on Earth is run by clocks. What happens when everything triggers at the same time? This theory traces back to when Einstein collectively figured out all of Earth plates and faults could and might move/trigger all at once, causing mass earth-quakes and volcanoes.

Still don't believe me. In the "Bible" it is stated that "God" will not end the world by water anymore but by fire, (Einsteins theory). Lastly Nostradamus the great predictor, who correctly prediction Adolf Hitler raising to power and both World Wars, first depicts a third World War, and it will be started by a third-world country (Iraq/Afghanistan). Also depicts the end of the world as being full of fire and power (War). My take on the whole "2012" theory is that I believe it will happen, so if I'm wrong, the rest of my life from December 22, 2012 will be gravy

Stars in the sky

However, this day has great importance in cross-cultural mythology and if you do anything on that day, you should stand in appreciation of the fact that our Earth and all the stars and planets and matter in our galaxy originated at the center of our galaxy and on that day we are aligned with the source of all the atoms that make up our bodies and the stars. If you are a Creationist, then think of this 'source' perhaps as the place where God created our galaxy; remember the symbolism of this alignment exists in Christianity as well, whether its meaning is recognized or not in modern theology.

The Mayans developed the Aztec calendar 2012 in order to predict the stages each civilization will go through, having experienced them first hand as they went from hunter-gatherers to developing a concept of zero before the rest of the world, along with pressurized plumbing, sewers, metropolises and accurate astronomical calculations not repeated until modern day science and computing.

You should do your own research into the details and stay critical of what you see but these are the elements I find most compelling and possible of the Aztec calendar 2012  argument. The period of change in our civilization according to the Mayan model is about 1996-2018. Our symbolic alignment with the origin of our planet at the center of the galaxy will occur. Globalization has seen a boom with the internet, which is a way to communicate instantly across the planet, have access to all information, and has lead to a change in consciousness that comes with seeing the world in a completely different way than humans ever have in our history.

Drastic changes in first-world governments have occurred during this 2012 period so far and will continue into it, not necessarily with a world- ending war but more likely with a new world order which we are already seeing come into place with a global court, and a supranational environmental protection enforcement agency with a possible global carbon tax and a banking system beholden to no single nation yet holding great power over the global economy.

These changes in the way we see the world, the way people interact globally and domestically, the way our governments are changing, the way our wars are changing, the steps being taken toward a world governing body of some kind, etc. could all be included as evidence of a correct prediction that the world we know will end and a new world will come of it as the next stage of our civilization. According to the Aztec calendar, 2012 might be the end of the world, it is part of a prediction that we will realize in the next decade that our civilization has entered a new stage in its evolution and we as individuals will see the world in a radically different way than our ancestors.

2012 Aztec calendar

2012 is not the end of the world even if we look at the Aztec calendar 2012, it is just part of a prediction that we will realize in the next decade that our civilization has entered a new stage in its evolution and we as individuals will see the world in a radically different way than our ancestors.

As with all end of the world 2012 predictions there are different views as to what the prediction or prophecy actually means. In 2000, some people thought space aliens would come to Earth and others thought it would be the second coming of Christ. As far as I remember, those examples were not unlike the other ideas of what would happen, the most accepted of which was that there would be a massive computer/ digital problem because of the date.

The same is true for proponents of Aztec calendar 2012. There are those who go way out there and claim things about the end of the world, but the truth is that it is not a prediction of the end of the world but the beginning of a new era. Those who are more credible have based their theory of a world changing event starting according to the Aztec calendar 2012 not on some programming errors but on artifacts and records from around the world.

The Aztec and other ancients around the world have put enormous importance on symbols and other records of a recurring (tens of thousands of years apart) alignment of the Earth with the Sun on a particular axis that also aligns with our galactic plane and the center of our galaxy. The symbol for this, found across many religions and cultures, is a circle with a cross or just a simple cross. Between us and the center of the galaxy is a 'dark rift', an area empty of stars and other matter, which is often depicted in artifacts and religions as the birth canal, symbolizing the birth place of the Earth and all that is around us. 21 December 2012 is the exact date of this alignment.

How the world end in 2012?

Among the many questions that bombard the internet, one of them is how will the world end in 2012? While there have been a lot of speculations the end of the world 2012, there have been lots of predictions indicating that the year 2012 is a special year and that December 21, 2012 is going to be one significant day in our history.

Nostradamus’ Reputation for Prediction.
When anything Nostradamus has predicted is discussed by the media, the information draws world wide attention. It is known by everyone that when Nostradamus speaks, stuff begins to happen. Nostradamus’ predictions are at times so accurate, it is terrifying. He has pinpointed new world leaders and many major events throughout history for centuries following his life. Nostradamus predicted the events of September 11, 2001. Yet, the destruction of the World Trade Center surprised and horrified the population.

The Mayan Calendar, Is it accurate?
If the world is going to end, we can safely assume that such an event will be terrifying and horrific. After all, the Mayans and the I-Ching oracle were horrified about the astronomical predictions thousands of years ago. They knew they wouldn’t be around to experience the events of December 21, 2012. We on the other hand will all have a front row seat. The one guide to survival that I found was at http://www.squidoo.com/how-to-survive-2012 and this source had wealth of information.

Merlin’s Prediction
Merlin’s predictions are alarmingly in agreement with the doom predicted by the Mayans. What was it that the Mayans found that was so horrifying about December 12, 2012? The rising sun on that date will line up perfectly with the black hole at the center of the Milky Way. Current astronomical scientists agree with the Mayan’s astronomy predictions.

Hopi Indians’ History
Like the Mayans, the Hopi have also always known that there were previous histories; other peoples who lived on planet Earth. Each of the preceding 3 worlds that called this planet home all made the same mistakes that humanity of this current creation have. The inhabitants of Earth have all misused technology and disconnected themselves from nature. When these civilizations refused to change, the Earth was destroyed. First the cleansing of our planet came by massive earthquakes; second by the Ice Age; third by the Great Flood.

The significance of the year 2012

Most of you know that the earth has got a magnetic field. As the earth’s molten core is rotating; the magnetic field is created. The thought sphere of the human mind is located in the earth’s magnetic field. This mag-netic field has been weakening dramatically over last ten years. Now, in physics there is a parameter called “Schumann´s Resonance”. Using that we can determine the strength of the earth’s magnetic field. While for many centuries, it was constant around 7.80 cycles per second, during the last 7-8 years, it has risen to 11 cycles per second and is continuing to increase dramatically. If you work it out mathematically, it appears that, by the year 2012, the "Schuman´s" is likely to be 13 cycles per second.

When this resonance is 13 cycles per second, the earth’s core would stop rotating with magnetic field gone, you mind is gone. When I say "your mind", what I mean is your "samskaras". The pressure of the past 11.000 years of samskaras will vanish. In the Dharma, we also say, “Mind is Karma”. All actions start from your mind. The mind is nothing but a storehouse of samskaras or past life vasanas from which all action emanates. This is stored in the earth’s magnetic field. So in the year 2012, it will become zero for a few days. After that the core will start rotating again. This would be a fresh beginning for man or the dawn of the Golden Age. This is the significance of the year 2012.

The study of fossil records has shown that, it happens roughly after 11.000 years. It’s only a short time away and then we can all start afresh. That is why I want you to become enlightened by 2012. If you are enlight-ened, with all your samskaras gone, we can begin a new yuga, which can be called Sathya Yuga or the Golden Age. Man will enter into a new state of al-tered consciousness.

As I told you already, the earth’s resonance is increasing which means the earth’s heart is undergoing a transformation. The earth has got a physical body, like you have a body. It has got a consciousness as well. Now as the resonance is increasing the earths heart functioning very differently from before. Now, your heart and the earth’s heart are connected. The earth’s heart can be influ-enced by your heart and vice versa. That is why, it is essential that your heart-beat synchronises with the earth’s resonance. This means your heart must flower. Your heart will flower when you discover love in your relationships. If you have discover love, you must stop judging your parents, spouses, etc., internally. Nobody can be judged as the whole universe directly influences all events, even the behaviour of the people. So learn to experience life. Life has to be experienced, be it pain or pleasure

The inca big myth

The Inca empire developed between 1400 and 1500 AD in an area which is now Peru. Before the 15th century the Andean region was populated by many different tribes of people. Under the military leadership of Pachacuti and his son Topa Inca, who were Inca emperors between 1438 and 1493, the Inca state expanded into a great empire.From a geographic point of view, the Inca empire was not a very attractive place to live. The north-western border is the coastal region of the Pacific Ocean, which is the driest desert on earth. Not a drop of rain has fallen there in over 500 years. The towering Andes Mountains begin east of the desert, with steep slopes that make agriculture a serious challenge. The Inca solved that problem by creating terraces and filling them with fertile earth brought up from the mountain valleys. To the east of the Andes, lay the vast and humid jungle of the Amazon River Basin, inhabited by fierce tribes whom the Inca never managed to conquer.

The Inca empire and culture was largely destroyed by the Spanish in the most brutal conquest seen on the American continent. Under the leadership of Fransisco Pizarro the Spanish stole over 280,000 kilograms of gold from the Inca, destroyed and prohibited all expression of native religion and culture. Yet many traditions managed to survive in the myths and culture of Peru, Ecuador and Columbia. The present-day Quechua-speaking peoples of the Andes are the descendants of the Inca. They make up almost 45 percent of the population of Peru. They live in close-knit communities and combine farming and herding with simple traditional technology. Much of the agricultural work is done cooperatively. Even though Catholicism is now the official religion in these areas, in practice it is a blend of Western and native Andean religion and culture.

Pachacuti drastically reorganized the Inca religion. He claimed to be the direct descendant of the Inca Sun God Inti, which made his people extremely obedient. Their daily work tasks almost became a religious duty. Pachacuti created a cult around himself and the sun-god Inti. Every day the emperor would wear new clothes, the old ones from the previous day had to be burned, and he would only eat from golden plates. Inca society was a theocratic society, meaning that politics and religion were completely intertwined. The Inca religion combined features of animism, fetishism, and the worship of nature gods representing forces of nature. Inca rituals included elaborate forms of divination and the sacrifice of humans and animals.  

Every Inca citizen was assigned a very strict task in life, connected to their age, gender and social position. For example children over five years of age had the responsibility of carrying water up to the fields where grown-ups were growing crops. And women older than fifty had to weave cloth for making clothes. Even the physically and mentally disabled were given daily tasks that were attuned to their capabilities. One of these tasks was chewing maize or corn and spitting it back into a big bowl. By letting this substance ferment the Inca made their own special corn beer called Chicha which they drank on festive occasions.

 

All of the individual responsibilities were recorded by bureaucrats through a system called the Quipu. It was an intricate form of communication using colored strings tied into knots. This was the Inca alternative to writing since they did not develop a written language of their own. Emperor Pachacuti also created religious holidays for his people. Six times a month the entire empire was shut down for festivities, lectures and parades. The Inca were incredible builders and architects. Their irrigation systems, palaces, temples, and fortifications can still be seen throughout the Andes. They had an efficient road system which was mainly used for government and military purposes. Couriers would carry messages in the form of knotted cords all over the empire. Unfortunately, this road network was also used by the Spanish, which greatly facilitated their conquest of the Inca Empire.

Mayan culture

The Maya civilization was one of the grandest in the history of the world and the reason for its collapse is still shrouded in mystery. The ancient Maya occupied a vast geographic area in Central and South America from around 2000 BC until 1500 AD. The Mayan culture extended to parts of what is now Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, and most of Guatemala and Belize. During the Classical Period which lasted from the third to the ninth century, Maya civilization built awe-inspiring temples, pyramids and cities and formed a complex social and political order. Many of the remnants in Tikal reveal the culture of this ancient civilization. The Mayan culture excelled in many different fields, and testaments of their achievements are found throughout the area. 

Today descendents of the old Maya, or the Indigenous as the are locally referred to, account for more than 50% of the Guatemalan population. Their present culture is vibrant and thriving, best shown by the many traditionally dressed woman and children seen along the streets in the entire country. Weaving is one of the outstanding Maya craft, an ancient art that has survived uninterrupted for centuries and is now becoming famous all over the world. The Maya also make baskets, pottery and wood carved of animals, saints and brightly-painted toys and chests. Chichicastenango hosts the traditional handicrafts market every Thursday and Sunday and a more typical Mayan market can be experienced every Saturday in Solola on the way to Lake Atitlan. 


The First Hemispheric Indigenous Education Conference was held in Guatemala in July 2001. The conference brought together various aspects of education for indigenous communities of America and facilitated participant's exchange of experiences, practical knowledge, and educational materials that are relevant to the development of bilingual, intercultural education in their respective countries.

Olmec history

In Mexico, archeologists and scientists (see Sitchin, ancientamerican.com) have found the most ancient calendar from Mexico dating back to exactly 3113 years B.C. and connected with an African civilization of ancient Mexico called the Olmec or Xi (Shee) Civilization.

The ancient Olmecs of Mexico and Central America were a facinating people. Upon the discovery of collosal stone heads in Mexico during the early part of the twentieth Century, there was no doubt that the facial features and hair texture (including cornrows) represented in the collosal Olmec sculpture represented Africoid people. Yet, for many decades, some archeologists and scientists have described what is obviously Negroid-featured sculpture as "baby-faced," "South-East Asian" "Jaguar-featured," and other terms used to cover-up their African Negroid identity.

Some historians and scientists, archeologists and others have for centuries covered up and made insignificant historical findings that show an African creation or connection to many of the world's first civilizations. Such has been the case in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, Moorish Spain, Shang and Shia China, and Mexico. The denial of the contributions to ancient civillizations and the systematic cover-up was and is based on the maintainance of the myth of Black/African inferiority which was established in Europe and the Americas to make slavery acceptable, and established in India by the infiltrators of the ancient civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in order to claim that the ancestors of India's Black Dalits (Untouchables) had no civilization (see "The Black Untouchables of India," by Y.N. Kly, V.T. Rajshekar and Runoko Rashidi: Clarity Press, Atlanta, Georgia).

Today, the denial of Black history and achievements to world culture continues through propaganda techniques such as accusing Black historians and Afro-centric writers as being "politically correct," if they refuse to accept the notion developed during the period of colonialism and slavery, that Blacks have no history. Yet, the facts when presented seem to have no effect on the distractors, including those who had to admit they made errors when they attempted to deny what was and is the obvious and overwhelming evidence of the creation and contributions to culture and civilization by Africans/Blacks around the world.

The discovery of an ancient calendar in Mexico connected to the Olmec civilization and dating back to 3113 years B.C., the date given for the beginning of an advanced culture in Mexico, has actually shocked many historians and archeologists. In fact, reports point out that the Mexican authorities were "embarrassed," by the findinigs because they placed Olmec civilization as beginning about 1200 years B.C. The discovery of the calendar pushes the dates back to 3113 years Before Christ, according to Sitchin. The book, "A History of the African-Olmecs," published by 1stbooks Library, is the most complete and most facinating and intriguing book ever written on the Black Olmec civilization of ancient Meso-America. The books lays out the facts concerning the true origins of the Olmecs in Africa, with migrations from China and other parts of the Old World.

According to studies and research conducted by Clyde Winters, the Olmecs were Africans from the Mandinka region of West Africa. They used the Mende script to write and they spoke the Mende language, the same language spoken by Cinque in the movie 'Amistad'. The Mende script found on monuments at Monte Alban in Mexico, has been deciphered and it was found to be identical to the Mende script used in West Africa. Afterwards, the language was found to be the very same language spoken by the Mende of West Africa.

One of the most important connections made to show that the Olmecs were West Africans is the very strong similarities in race between the Olmecs and West Africans and the ancient Nubians. In fact, during a scientific conference held years ago, West African scientists identified Olmec artworkd and representations of Africoid peoples as West African. The Africans also identified cultural traits such as ear plugs, scarification marks and keloid tatoos on the skin and face, cornrows, braids and tassels and even afro hairstyle as West African. Moreover, according to Ivan Van Sertima (African Presene in Early America), giant heads of stone to represent important people in Africa was being done in the present era as well as in ancient Egypt and Nubia.

The 22 or more collosal stone heads carved out of solid basalt rock has identifiable Black African in racial features as well as cultural traits like cornrow hairstyle, braids with beads and kinky hair as well as a type of war helmet identified as Nubian have been found carved in Colosal Olmec sculpture connecting them to West Africa and the Egypt/Sudan region. Hundreds of clay and terracota busts, statuettes and figurines also show Black African racial and cultural traits. For example, scarification marks and keloid tatoos identical to those worn by West Africans and Sudanese Africans can be seen on some Olmec busts and terracota heads. Kinky hair, cornrows, braids are also represented (see African Presence in Early America, by Ivan Van Sertima; Transaction Publishers.

The Olmec are known as the Xi People, a group that migrated from Africa. Another group of people who joined the Olmes were the Black Xia of China. According to historians such as Wayne B. Chandler (African Presence in Early America), two of China's earliest dynaties, the Shang and the Shia, were both heavily Black African/Black Oceanic dynasties, with Mongol Chinese as well. They dominated China about 2800 B.C. to 1100 B.C. As early as 2200 B.C., members of the Black Shia began migrating out of China after they were replaced by the Black Shang Dynasty. The book, "A History of the African-Olmecs presents many references from Chinese sources to support the fact of Black civilizations in ancient China.

About 1100 B.C., migrants from northern China predominated by Mongoloids called Chou, invaded the Chang Kingdom and described the Chang as "black and oily skinned." During that period many of the Black Chang migrated to Southern China, Indo-China and the Pacific Islands. Others went to the Americas, where they met an established Black Mende culture in Mexico.

The African-Olmecs also had religious practices identical to that of West Africans according to "A History of the African-Olmecs," (published by 1stbooks Library, 2959 Vernal Pike, Bloomington, Indiana 47404 U.S.A ww.1stbooks.com ) Olmec religions included the use of shamen, the recognition of the Venus planet complex, the use of the ax as a prop in the worship of the Thunder God and the importance of children in their religion. In the African religion of Shango, shamen are used. In fact, a statuette of an Oni or Priest-king of ancient Nigeria falls in line with the description of the Olmec Shamen given by early American archeologists in the Olmec region of Mexico.

In the Shango religion of Nigeria, Trinidad and Tobago, Cuba, Brazil and other parts of African-Americas, the very same religion as practiced by the Olmecs is still practiced. As for Africa, the Venus complex is studied by the Ono and Bambara, both accomplished seamen who usd to sail the once sea-covered Sahara and the Atlantic. The Dogon of Mali specialize in the study of the Sirius star system and are experts in their accuracy and charting methods, without any telecopes. The use of the ax and its connection to the worship of the Thunder God was also connected to the Olmecs. Both the Olmecs of Mexico and West Africans practiced religions that included children playing a significant part.

There is overwhelming evidence in all areas that the first civilization in Mexico was influenced tremendously by Africans from West Africa and Nubia/Egypt. All cultural and racial connections show this importand and crucial fact. There is also a connection with the early Black and Mongoloid dynasties of ancient Shia and Shang Dynasty China, whose prehhistoric origins is said to be Mesopotamia during the Kushite dynasties and Kushite Sudan.

The statue of an ancient Nigerian Oni or Priest-king dating back thousands of years shows him holding religious artefacts that have been found among Olmec priests who are holding identical artefacts in the very same manner. A large stone statue of a Negroid character at the San Augustine Culture site in Colombia, South America, also show the same items in the hands of the statue.

Apart from the Olmecs, a number of other Black cultures and civilizations have been found to have existed in the Americas before Columbus and thousands of years before Christ. The book, "A History of the African-Olmecs," lists them as well as those who personally excavated, explored or spoke to the remnants of these early American Blacks of ancient African and Pacific Ocean origins. The naturalist and author, I. Rafinesque (pp. 121, 186-187, 194, 208-209 lists many such Black nations in his work, "The Black Nations of America," (Atlantic Journal and Friend Knowledge; Philadelphia 1832/1833; p. 86. Some of these nations include the Washitaw of the Louisiana Territories who owned millions of acres of land, the Guale and Jamassee of the South-eastern U.S., the Black Caliornians of California and the South-western U.S.

A number of pre-Columbian Black nations also come from Latin America. There are the Afro-Darienite of Panama, the Choco of Columbia who like other Black Columbians and Black Latin Americans, are the victims of some of the most putrid forms of racism practiced today, including India's castism againt Black Untouchables.

Aztec history

The Aztecs were a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of central Mexico in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. They called themselves Mexica. The Republic of Mexico and its capital, Mexico City, derive their names from the word "Mexica". The capital of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, built on raised island in Lake Texcoco. Mexico City is built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. The Spanish colonization of the Americas reached the mainland during the reign of Huey Tlatoani , Moctezuma II (Montezuma II). In 1521 Hernan Cortés and an allied army of American Indians that far outnumbered the defending Aztecs, conquered the Aztecs through germ warfare, siege warfare, psychological warfare, and direct combat.

The center of the Aztec civilization was the Valley of Mexico, a huge, oval basin about 7,500 feet above sea level. The Aztec empire included many cities and towns, especially in the Valley of Mexico. The largest city in the empire was the capital, Tenochtitlan. The early settlers built log rafts, then covered them with mud and planted seeds to create roots and develop more solid land for building homes in this marshy land. Canals were also cut out through the marsh so that a typical Aztec home had its back to a canal with a canoe tied at the door.

The story of the Aztecs' rise to power is awe inspiring one, and is one of the most remarkable stories in world history. They were a relatively unknown group of people who came into the Valley of Mexico during the 12th and 13th century A.D., and rose to be the greatest power in the Americas by the time the Spaniards arrived, in the 16th century. Little is known of the earliest Aztecs, they did not keep a written record. Their history was passed on by word of mouth from one generation to the next. Legend has it that they came from an Island called Aztlan, meaning White Place - Place of Herons. In the Aztec codex Tira de la Peregrinacion, commonly called the Migration Scrolls. The scrolls have the Aztecs leaving Aztlan, which was described as an island in a lake with Chicomoztoc depicted as seven temples in the center of the island. The Aztecs felt they were the "chosen people" of Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs believed Huitzilopochtli their war god was their protector, how had them search for their promised land.
 
Sometime during the 12th & 13th century the Aztecs straggled into the Valley of Mexico, led by their chieftain Tenoch. They were a poor, ragged people who survived on vermin, snakes, and stolen food. They were hatred and rejected by all the surrounding inhabitants of the valley, for their barbarous and uncultured habits. They were driven from one location to another. Early in the 14th century, Huitzilopochtli told Tenoch to lead his people to a place of refuge on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco. When they reached their destination, they were to look for an eagle perched on a cactus, growing from a rock or cave surrounded by water. At that location, they were to build their city and honor Huitzilopochtli with human sacrifices. The city they built was called Tenochtitlán, the city of Tenoch.

In the beginning stages of Tenochtitlán, development, Aztec life was very difficult in their undesirable location. Tenochtitlán was located on a marshy island with limited resources, they built a few thatch and mud huts, and some small temples. The Aztecs would have to work constantly to maintain a city on swampy land. There was also continuing tensions between the Aztecs and the neighboring peoples on the mainland who despised them. Despite these obstacles, the Aztecs worked hard to improve the quality of their lives. They adopted an agricultural system of farming called the Chinampas. and in a short period of time, the land was transformed into a fertile and highly productive island.

As the Aztec empire expanded, specialized craftsmen and common laborers were brought to Tenochtitlán to expand the city. Since it was built on swamp land, large wooden stakes were driven into the soft ground to provide secure foundations for the new buildings. They were able to use the stone Tezontli to construct the buildings on the unstable ground. Despite these precautions, the larger temples and palaces would often sink below ground level. As a result, the older building were continuously repaired or rebuilt with the newer structures built over the older core.

By 1376, the Aztecs knew that they had to select a emperor of royal lineage, to gain respect of their neighbors. With political genius, they chose a man by the name of Acamapichtli as their emperor. He was related to the last rulers of Culhuacán, and his lineage extended back in time to the great Toltec ruler Quetzalcóatl. With the selection of Acamapichtli as the Aztecs first true emperor, their were able to claim descendancy from the great Toltecs. During the 15th century the military strength of the Aztecs increased. They grew from a small tribe of mercenaries into a powerful and highly disciplined military force. They also formed alliances with their powerful neighbors Texcoco and Tacuba, known as the Triple Alliance. It was a time for building and the city Tenochtitlán grow and prospered.


By the end of Tenochtitlans rule, in 1520, 38 conquered tributary provinces had been made, who had to make payments. However, some of the tribes at the borders stayed strongly independent. This made it easy for the Spanish captain, Cortez to defeat them. The priests reported signs of doom, but Montezuma, the Aztec ruler, thought Cortez was a returning god. When the Spanish saw the gold presents Montezuma offered to them as presents, they wanted to conquer the city. The Spanish defeated the Aztecs and the Catholics felt that it was their duty to destroy every trace of the Aztecs. The few Aztecs that remain have carried on their culture today.

Inca culture

The Inca Empire was easily one of the most impressive civilizations to ever rise in the Americas. Beginning as a tribe roughly around the year 1200 AD, the Inca culture would flourish in the Andes Mountains, extending its reach throughout the mountains of Peru, and into the present day countries of Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile. The 1532 Battle of Cajamarca essentially marked an end to the short-lived Inca Empire, but the impact they made in that small window of time continues to be one of Peru’s most enduring attractions. From their ruins, to the Peru museums that house their artifacts, visitors can gain an appreciation of how advanced the Inca were. Their modern-day descendants, many of whom speak the Inca Quechua language and live much like their forefathers, are among the most interesting native peoples in the world, if not the friendliest. Their handcrafted wares make for some of the best Peru souvenirs, and their music inspires a most magical Andes Mountains soundtrack.

The history of the Inca begins in myth with the arrival of the first Inca king, Manco Capac, who was borne from the sun god, Inti, on an island in Lake Titicaca. Manco Capac would found the Inca Civilization in Cusco, and the city would remain the all important capital of this great civilization. 11 Inca rulers would follow Manco Capac, among them Pachacutec, who is generally credited for founding the actual Inca Empire. Pachacutec began to vastly expand the Inca Empire in and around the year 1438. By this point, the original Inca tribe had grown into pre-Columbian America’s largest empire. In Cusco, you can see ruins from the palaces that were built for the sixth and eight Inca rulers, and remnants from the reigning period of Pachacutec include the Qoricancha in Cusco, the Ollantaytambo and Pisac fortresses, and Machu Picchu. These ruins are all found in and around the Sacred Valley, which was an area of the Andes Mountains that the Inca especially revered, due in part to its beauty and its climate.

In the early 1500"s, the Inca Empire had come to cover most of civilized South America, but when the Inca ruler, Huayna Capac, died before naming a successor, his sons, Huascar and Atahualpa commenced a civil war of sorts. Also during this time, smallpox had reached the empire from Central America, and those who brought it, The Spanish Conquistadors, weren’t far behind. Francisco Pizarro, a most significant name when it comes to the history of the Incas, first reached Inca territory in the year 1526, and upon his return to Spain in 1529, he received permission from the crown to return and conquer the Inca regions. By 1532 AD, Atahualpa had succeeded in effectively conquering his brother, and his base was the northern Peru highlands city of Cajamarca. The 1532 Battle of Cajamarca, which saw Pizarro and his men overwhelm the Inca forces, is one of the most notable moments in South American history, let alone the history of the Inca. Atahualpa, who refused to convert to Christianity, was imprisoned in Cajamarca. After the Spanish seized his gold and silver, he was killed. The Inca Empire was essentially over, and Atahualpa’s brother, Manco Inca Yupanqui, made a failed attempt to re-seize Cusco in 1536. Manco Inca did manage to successfully hold off the Spanish after retreating to the Ollantaytambo fortress. His 1536 stand marks the most successful Inca defense against Spanish forces.

The Inca culture permeates Peru to the present day, and it is impossible to visit Peru and not notice how attached the country is to its Inca roots. The Inca ruins of Peru are perhaps most responsible for attracting curious visitors, most of whom come to see majestic Machu Picchu. The Sacred Valley, with the towns of Pisac and Ollantaytambo, is a place rich with Inca ruins, and the Sun Temple of Machu Picchu displays their reverence for the sun. The sun was the basis for the Inca religion, and among the top Peru festivals, Inti Raymi, is dedicated to the sun god, Inti. Inca ruins aren’t only found in and around Cusco however. In Cajamarca, you can visit Inca ruins, and in nearby Tucume Peru, you can join one of the tours that visits the Inca pyramids. According to some, the Tucume Inca pyramids comprise the most interesting excavation site in the Americas, though that designation is surely up for debate. While brushing up on the history of the Incas is a good idea before getting to Peru, you will have plenty of chances to learn all about it when you get there. Chances are you will be just as fascinated with Inca culture as are the proud Peruvians.